فهرست:
فهرست مطالب... i
فهرست جداول.. v
فهرست اشکال.. vii
فصل اول: مقدمه و اهمیت موضوع. 1
1-1: مقدمه.. 2
1-2: اهمیت موضوع وضرورت انجام تحقیق.. 3
1-3: اهداف طرح.. 4
1-3-1: هدف کلی.. 4
1-3-2: اهداف فرعی.. 4
1-3-3: اهداف کاربردی.. 5
1-4: فرضیات.. 5
فصل دوم: مروری بر مطالعات انجام شده. 6
2-1: آناتومی و فیزیولوژی پستان. 6
2-1-1: ساختار و عملکرد پستان. 7
2-1-2: گردش خون پستان. 8
2-1-3: تخلیه لنفاوی پستان. 9
2-1-4: عصب رسانی پستان: 9
2-1-5: ناهنجاریهای پستان. 9
2-1-6: بیماریهای خوش خیم پستان. 9
2-2: سرطان پستان. 10
2-2-1: شیوع سرطان پستان در جهان و ایران. 10
2-2-2: کلیت سرطان پستان. 11
2-2-3: سرطان درجا یا غیرتهاجمی.. 11
2-2-4: سرطان مهاجم پستان. 12
2-2-5: علل ایجاد سرطان پستان. 14
2-2-6: علائم سرطان پستان. 16
2-2-7: تشخیص سرطان پستان. 17
2-2-8: رده بندی سرطان پستان. 19
2-2-9: درمان سرطان پستان. 21
2-2-10: سرطان عود کننده پستان. 24
2-2-11: سرطان پستان در مردان. 24
2-3: ژنتیک سرطان. 25
2-3-1:سرطان. 25
2-3-2: انکوژنها 26
2-3-3: ژنهای سرکوب کننده تومور 29
2-3-4: اختلالات تنظیم چرخهی سلولی در سرطان. 29
2-3-5: P53 محافظ ژنوم. 31
2-3-6: نقش BRCA1/2. 31
2-3-7: نقص در ماشین ترمیم.. 32
2-3-8: توانایی تحریک رگزایی و متاستاز تومورهای بدخیم.. 32
2-3-9: بررسی مارکرها در خون افراد مبتلا به سرطان پستان. 32
2-4: آنتی ژنهای سرطانی- بیضه ایی.. 33
2-4-1: کلاسه بندی ژنهای سرطانی-بیضه ای.. 34
2-4-2:تنظیم بیان آنتی ژنهای سرطانی – بیضه ایی.. 35
2-4-3: عملکرد ژنهای سرطانی-بیضه ای.. 35
2-4-4: ایمونوژنیسیته آنتی ژنهای سرطانی- بیضه ایی.. 35
2-4-5: ژنهای مورد بررسی: ARMC3, TPTE, TTK.. 36
2-5: مبانی تئوریک در Real-Time PCR.. 38
2-5-1. کنترل داخلی : 39
فصل سوم: مواد و روش ها 41
3-1: نمونه گیری.. 42
3-1-1 .روش جمع آوری و تعداد نمونه ها 42
3-2.استخراج RNA از نمونه بافتهای جمع آوری شده. 43
3-2-1 . محلول های مورد نیاز 43
3-2-2. روش استخراج RNA از بافت... 43
3-2-3 .روش الکتروفورز کردن نمونه RNAبر روی ژل آگارز 8/0 درصد.. 45
3-2-4. ظهور باندهای RNAبر روی ژل.. 45
3-3. تیمار RNA جهت حذف DNA ژنومی.. 45
3-4 .سنتز cDNA از RNA استخراج شده از بافت... 46
3-5. طراحی پرایمر و پروب و بررسی کیفیت آنها : 46
3-5-1. غلظت بهینه پرایمر. 47
3-5-2. آنالیز منحنی ذوب: 48
3-5-3. غلظت بهینه پروب: 48
3-5-4. تهیه سریال رقت به منظور بررسی کارائی پرایمرها : 48
3-6-. انجام تکنیک Real-Time PCR بر روی نمونه های مورد مطالعه : 48
3-6-1. تجزیه و تحلیل نتایج بدست آمده از Real-Time PCR: 50
3-7. نحوه تجزیه و تحلیل داده ها: 51
فصل چهارم: نتایج و یافته ها 52
4-1. اطلاعات دموگرافیک جمعیت مورد مطالعه.. 53
4-2 :آنالیز RNA.. 54
4-2-1 :آنالیز کمی RNA.. 54
4-2-2 :آنالیز کیفی RNA.. 54
4-3. آنالیز کمی RNA تیمار شده. 55
4-4. بهینه سازی پرایمرها 56
4-4-1. آنالیز منحنی ذوب: 58
4-4-2.تعیین غلظت مناسب پروب: 59
4-5. نتایج Real-Time PCR.. 60
4-5-1. آمار توصیفی: 60
4-6. درصد بیان ژن ARMC3. 63
4-7. درصد بیان ژن TPTE.. 65
4-8. درصد بیان ژن TTK.. 67
4-9. بررسی درصد بیان همزمان ژنهای سرطانی- بیضهایی.. 69
فصل پنجم: ............................................... بحث، نتیجه گیری و پیشنهادها 70
پیشنهادات.. 74
Abstract: 76
References: 77
منبع:
1. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, DM. P. GLOBOCAN 2008 v1.2, Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide: IARC CancerBase No. 10 [Internet]. 2008.
2. Ferlay J, Parkin DM, Steliarova-Foucher E. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2008. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46(4):765-81. Epub 2010/02/02.
3. Mousavi SM, Montazeri A, Mohagheghi MA, Jarrahi AM, Harirchi I, Najafi M, et al. Breast cancer in Iran: an epidemiological review. Breast J. 2007;13(4):383-91. Epub 2007/06/27.
4. Mousavi SM, Gouya MM, Ramazani R, Davanlou M, Hajsadeghi N, Seddighi Z. Cancer incidence and mortality in Iran. Ann Oncol. 2009;20(3):556-63. Epub 2008/12/17.
5. Yassaee VR, Zeinali S, Harirchi I, Jarvandi S, Mohagheghi MA, Hornby DP, et al. Novel mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in Iranian women with early-onset breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2002;4(4):R6. Epub 2002/07/09.
6. Jacobson JA, Danforth DN, Cowan KH, d'Angelo T, Steinberg SM, Pierce L, et al. Ten-year results of a comparison of conservation with mastectomy in the treatment of stage I and II breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(14):907-11. Epub 1995/04/06.
7. Obedian E, Fischer DB, Haffty BG. Second malignancies after treatment of early-stage breast cancer: lumpectomy and radiation therapy versus mastectomy. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(12):2406-12. Epub 2000/06/16.
8. Society. AC. "What Are the Key Statistics for BreastCancer?". Archived from the original on January 5, 2008 Retrieved 2008-02-03
2007.
9. Luiz Gonzaga Almeida NJS, et al..,. CTdatabase: a knowledge-base of high-throughput and curated data on cancer-testis antigens Oxford Journals ,2008 37 (1):pD316-D319.
10. van der Bruggen P, Traversari C, Chomez P, Lurquin C, De Plaen E, Van den Eynde B, et al. A gene encoding an antigen recognized by cytolytic T lymphocytes on a human melanoma. Science. 1991;254(5038):1643-7. Epub 1991/12/13.
11. Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard M-HM. Cancer-Testis Antigens: Potential Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy Archives of Iranian Medicine ,200912(4):p395-404.
12. Scanlan MJ, Gure AO, Jungbluth AA, Old LJ, Chen YT. Cancer/testis antigens: an expanding family of targets for cancer immunotherapy. Immunol Rev. 2002;188:22-32. Epub 2002/11/26.
13. Stevenson BJ IC, Panji S, Zahn-Zabel M, Hide W, Old L, et al. Rapid evolution of cancer/testis genes on the X chromosome. . BMC Genomics 2007; 8: 129 – 139.
14. Mashino K, Sadanaga N, Tanaka F, Yamaguchi H, Nagashima H, Inoue H, et al. Expression of multiple cancer-testis antigen genes in gastrointestinal and breast carcinomas. Br J Cancer. 2001;85(5):713-20. Epub 2001/09/05.
15. Mischo A, Kubuschok B, Ertan K, Preuss KD, Romeike B, Regitz E, et al. Prospective study on the expression of cancer testis genes and antibody responses in 100 consecutive patients with primary breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(3):696-703. Epub 2005/08/12.
16. Harmer V. Breast Cancer Nursing Care and Management. Second ed: Blackwell Publishing Ltd; 2011. 9 p.
17. Kaufmann M. Management of Breast Diseases: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2009.
18. DeSantis C ea. Breast cancer statistics, 2011. CA Cancer J Clin. 2011;61(6):409-18.
19. Wooster R WBL. Breast and Ovarian Cancer New Engl J Medicine. 2003;348:2339–47.
20. Therapy. MMoDa. Breast Disorders: Breast Cancer. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 2003.
21. Society AC. Cancer Facts & Figures 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-26. 2007.
22. Giordano SH CD, et al. Breast carcinoma in men: a population-based study. Cancer. 2004;101(1):51-7.
23. Behjati F AM, et al. Prognnostic value of chromosome 1 and 8 copy number in invasive ductal breast carcinoma among Iranian woman: An interphase FISH analysis. Pathol Oncol Res. 2005;11:157-63.
24. ACS.2005. Society AC. Cancer Facts & Figures 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-26. 2007.
.
25. Welch HG WS, Schwartz LM The sea of uncertainty surrounding ductal carcinoma in situ--the price of screening mammography. Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100(4):228-9.
26. Kelly TA KJ, et al. Axillary lymph node metastases in patients with a final diagnosis of ductal carcinoma in situ. American Journal of Surgery. 2003;186(4):368-70.
27. Hunt K, Robb L, Strom A, Mendelsohn j. Breast Cancer. Second ed: Springer Sience + Business Media LLC; 2008.
28. Lacroix M. Significance, detection and markers of disseminated breast cancer cells. Endocrine-related Cancer. 2006;13(4):1033-67.
29. Hassey Dow K. Pocket guide to breast cancer. Third ed: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc; 2006.
30. American Institute for Cancer Prevention. Policy and Action for Cancer Prevention. World Cancer Research Fund, http://wwwdietandcancerreportorg. 2014.
31. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD. Epidemiology of breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 1990;12:228-40. Epub 1990/01/01.
32. Morrow M, Jordan V. Managing breast cancer risk: BC Decker Inc; 2003.
33. Jones SC, Gregory P, Nehill C, Barrie L, Luxford K, Nelson A, et al. Australian women's awareness of breast cancer symptoms and responses to potential symptoms. Cancer Causes Control. 2010;21(6):945-58. Epub 2010/02/24.
34. Yankaskas BC, Haneuse S, Kapp JM, Kerlikowske K, Geller B, Buist DS. Performance of first mammography examination in women younger than 40 years. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102(10):692-701. Epub 2010/05/05.
35. Eisinger F. Re: Performance of first mammography examination in women younger than 40 years. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2010;102(22):1742; author reply , -3. Epub 2010/10/23.
36. Morrow M, Jordan V. Managing breast cancer risk: BC Decker Inc; 2003.
37. Mueller F, Bommer M, Lacher U, Ruhland C, Stagge V, Adler G, et al. KOC is a novel molecular indicator of malignancy. Br J Cancer. 2003;88(5):699-701. Epub 2003/03/06.
38. Merck Manual, Professional Edition. Breast Cancer.Ch. 253.
39. Sinn HP, Helmchen B, Wittekind CH. [TNM classification of breast cancer: changes and comments on the 7th edition]. Pathologe. 2010;31(5):361-6. Epub 2010/08/17. TNM-Klassifikation beim Mammakarzinom : Neuerungen und Anmerkungen zur 7. Auflage.
40. Pusztai CSaL. Molecular origin of cancer: gene-expression signatures in breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(8):790.
41. Romond EH PE, Bryant J, et al. Trastuzumab plus adjuvant chemotherapy for operable HER2+ breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1673–84 and supplementary appendix.
42. Families NCIatNRCfW. Surgery Choices for Women with Early Stage Breast Cancer. 2004.
43. Massarut S BG, Belleti B, et al. Intraoperative radiotherapy impairs breast cancer cell motility induced by surgical wound fluid. Oncol 2006;24(18S):10611.
44. Belletti B VJ, D'Andrea S, et al. Targeted intraoperative radiotherapy impairs the stimulation of breast cancer cell proliferation and invasion caused by surgical wounding. Clin Cancer Res. 2008;14(5):1325-32.
45. Robson ME, Storm CD, Weitzel J, Wollins DS, Offit K, American Society of Clinical O. American Society of Clinical Oncology policy statement update: genetic and genomic testing for cancer susceptibility. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(5):893-901.
46. M. J. Adjuvant trastuzumab therapy for HER2-positive breast cancer. Clin Breast Cancer. 2008;8(4):324-33.
47. Herceptin.com. Herceptin (trastuzumab) Adjuvant HER2+ Breast Cancer Therapy Pivotal Studies and Efficacy Data. Retrieved 2010-05-08. 2010.
48. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Hao Y, Xu J, Murray T, et al. Cancer Statistics, 2008. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2008;58(2):71-96.
49. Strachan T, Read A. Human Molecular Genetics. fourth ed: Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC; 2011.
50. Loeb KR, Loeb LA. Significance of multiple mutations in cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2000;21(3):379-85.
51. Chial H. Proto-oncogenes to oncogenes to cancer. . Nature Education. 2008;1(1):33.
52. Saez R, Chan AM, Miki T, Aaronson SA. Oncogenic activation of human R-ras by point mutations analogous to those of prototype H-ras oncogenes. Oncogene. 1994;9(10):2977-82. Epub 1994/10/01.
53. Hardwick KG, Li R, Mistrot C, Chen RH, Dann P, Rudner A, et al. Lesions in many different spindle components activate the spindle checkpoint in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1999;152(2):509-18. Epub 1999/06/03.
54. Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne CM, Garewal H. DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in five major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection against carcinogenesis. Mutation research. 2002;511(2):145-78. Epub 2002/06/08.
55. Ferrara N, Hillan KJ, Novotny W. Bevacizumab (Avastin), a humanized anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody for cancer therapy. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2005;333(2):328-35.
56. Zheng HY, Chen Q, Ye YB, Huang WW. [mRNA expression of CK19 and CEA in peripheral blood of patients with breast cancer detected by real-time quantitative PCR]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2008;88(32):2267-70. Epub 2008/12/18.
57. Galan M, Vinolas N, Colomer D, Soler G, Munoz M, Longaron R, et al. Detection of occult breast cancer cells by amplification of CK19 mRNA by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction: role of surgical manipulation. Anticancer Res. 2002;22(5):2877-84. Epub 2003/01/18.
58. Chen CC, Hou MF, Wang JY, Chang TW, Lai DY, Chen YF, et al. Simultaneous detection of multiple mRNA markers CK19, CEA, c-Met, Her2/neu and hMAM with membrane array, an innovative technique with a great potential for breast cancer diagnosis. Cancer Lett. 2006;240(2):279-88. Epub 2005/11/18.
59. Klimant E, Glurich I, Mukesh B, Onitilo A. Blood Type, Hormone Receptor Status, HER2/neu Status, and Survival in Breast Cancer: A Retrospective Study Exploring Relationships in a Phenotypically Well-Defined Cohort. Clin Med Res. 2011. Epub 2011/01/26.
60. Ghafouri-Fard S, Modarressi MH. Cancer-testis antigens: potential targets for cancer immunotherapy. Arch Iran Med. 2009;12(4):395-404. Epub 2009/07/02.
61. Oliver Hofmann OLC, et al. Genome-wide analysis of cancer/testis gene expression PNAS 2008;105(5):20422-7.
62. Rao M, Chinnasamy N, Hong JA, Zhang Y, Zhang M, Xi S, et al. Inhibition of histone lysine methylation enhances cancer-testis antigen expression in lung cancer cells: implications for adoptive immunotherapy of cancer. Cancer Res. 2011;71(12):4192-204. Epub 2011/05/07.
63. Okada T, Akada M, Fujita T, Iwata T, Goto Y, Kido K, et al. A novel cancer testis antigen that is frequently expressed in pancreatic, lung, and endometrial cancers. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(1):191-7. Epub 2006/01/07.
64. Mizukami Y, Kono K, Daigo Y, Takano A, Tsunoda T, Kawaguchi Y, et al. Detection of novel cancer-testis antigen-specific T-cell responses in TIL, regional lymph nodes, and PBL in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Sci. 2008;99(7):1448-54. Epub 2008/05/03.
65. Li X, Liu B, Ji CN, Kang Y, Mao Y. Cloning and expression of ARMC3_v2, a novel splicing variant of the human ARMC3 gene. Genetika. 2006;42(7):999-1003. Epub 2006/08/19.
66. Dong XY, Su YR, Qian XP, Yang XA, Pang XW, Wu HY, et al. Identification of two novel CT antigens and their capacity to elicit antibody response in hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Br J Cancer. 2003;89(2):291-7. Epub 2003/07/17.
67. Chen H, Rossier C, Morris MA, Scott HS, Gos A, Bairoch A, et al. A testis-specific gene, TPTE, encodes a putative transmembrane tyrosine phosphatase and maps to the pericentromeric region of human chromosomes 21 and 13, and to chromosomes 15, 22, and Y. Hum Genet. 1999;105(5):399-409. Epub 1999/12/22.
68. Mills GB, Schmandt R, McGill M, Amendola A, Hill M, Jacobs K, et al. Expression of TTK, a novel human protein kinase, is associated with cell proliferation. J Biol Chem. 1992;267(22):16000-6. Epub 1992/08/05.
69. Lindberg RA, Fischer WH, Hunter T. Characterization of a human protein threonine kinase isolated by screening an expression library with antibodies to phosphotyrosine. Oncogene. 1993;8(2):351-9. Epub 1993/02/01.
70. Liu ST, Chan GK, Hittle JC, Fujii G, Lees E, Yen TJ. Human MPS1 kinase is required for mitotic arrest induced by the loss of CENP-E from kinetochores. Mol Biol Cell. 2003;14(4):1638-51. Epub 2003/04/11.
71. Jelluma N, Brenkman AB, van den Broek NJ, Cruijsen CW, van Osch MH, Lens SM, et al. Mps1 phosphorylates Borealin to control Aurora B activity and chromosome alignment. Cell. 2008;132(2):233-46. Epub 2008/02/05.
72. Martin-Lluesma S, Stucke VM, Nigg EA. Role of Hec1 in spindle checkpoint signaling and kinetochore recruitment of Mad1/Mad2. Science. 2002;297(5590):2267-70. Epub 2002/09/28.
73. Wei JH, Chou YF, Ou YH, Yeh YH, Tyan SW, Sun TP, et al. TTK/hMps1 participates in the regulation of DNA damage checkpoint response by phosphorylating CHK2 on threonine 68. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(9):7748-57. Epub 2004/12/25.
74. Bhonde MR, Hanski ML, Budczies J, Cao M, Gillissen B, Moorthy D, et al. DNA damage-induced expression of p53 suppresses mitotic checkpoint kinase hMps1: the lack of this suppression in p53MUT cells contributes to apoptosis. J Biol Chem. 2006;281(13):8675-85. Epub 2006/02/01.
75. Yuan B, Xu Y, Woo JH, Wang Y, Bae YK, Yoon DS, et al. Increased expression of mitotic checkpoint genes in breast cancer cells with chromosomal instability. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(2):405-10. Epub 2006/01/24.
76. Yuan JS, Reed A, Chen F, Stewart CN, Jr. Statistical analysis of real-time PCR data. BMC bioinformatics. 2006;7:85. Epub 2006/03/01.
77. Wong ML, Medrano JF. Real-time PCR for mRNA quantitation. BioTechniques. 2005;39(1):75-85. Epub 2005/08/03.